miércoles, 19 de mayo de 2010

LAS QUIEBRAS DEL ESTADO ESPAÑOL

Las finanzas españolas siempre se han movido en el terreno de las bancarrotas. La falta de emprendedores ha hecho que la mayor parte de las infraestructuras siempre haya ido al cargo de la Hacienda Pública. Gastos que no siempre se han visto compensados por la parte de los ingresos y que han llevado a una media de casi una quiebra cada 50 años, aunque se han vivido periodos muy tranquilos.


Primero fue el alto coste de las empresas bélicas hispanas, desde Filipinas hasta las Indias. Más tarde, la Guerra de Independencia y la pérdida de las colonias –las gallinas de los huevos de oro y plata-. Luego, las luchas entre conservadores como Cánovas del Castillo y progresistas como Sagasta fueron las que no permitieron el equilibrio de las finanzas. Finalmente, fue la Guerra Civil la que llevó de nuevo la suspensión de pagos a la economía española.


El concepto de deuda, tal y como se entiende hoy en día, lo crea Carlos I de España y V de Alemania. A la muerte de su abuelo Maximiliano I, en 1519, compite con el rey de Francia, Francisco I, por ser elegido Rey de los Romanos. El prestamista de su abuelo, Jakob Fugger (Jacobo Fúcar como se le conocía en España), se compromete a sufragar su elección entre los príncipes germanos con tal de cobrar las deudas pendientes de su abuelo y las nuevas que asumía el joven rey.


Una lucha que termina con Carlos como Emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano pero con una fuerte deuda con Fugger. A su muerte, el banquero amasaba una fortuna de 2,1 millones de florines, unos 125 millones de euros en la actualidad –una cantidad considerable para la época-.


El Emperador tuvo que firmar unos “Asientos” –obligaciones de hoy en día- a Fugger en los que se estipulaba el dinero a devolver y los intereses. Además, se utilizaban las minas de oro, plata y sal y los impuestos que se cobraban en Castilla como avales en caso de no pagarse la deuda. Comenzaba así la historia de la Deuda soberana.


Una deuda que fue creciendo al ritmo que crecía el Imperio Español. Se necesitaba dinero para batallas, para apaciguar revueltas y para seguir conquistando Las Indias. Préstamos que estaban asegurados por el poderío español y que habrían tenido calificación triple A de existir las agencias de calificación. Nadie dudaba del Imperio Español.


Los problemas llegaron con el ascenso al trono del hijo de Carlos I, Felipe II. Mantener un Imperio en el que “nunca se pone el Sol” no es barato. La Corona seguía endeudándose para mantener sus conquistas de ultramar. Finalmente, Felipe II al poco tiempo de comenzar a reinar se vio obligado a declarar la “suspensión de pagos de los asientos”: la primera quiebra de un Estado.


Una ruina que vino provocada por la construcción de un estado y por la hiperinflación. Felipe II articuló un estado cada vez más centralizado que costaba dinero, para ello desarrolló impuestos y una Hacienda. Tasas que no se cobraban ni al clero ni a los nobles, lo que hizo estallar la caja del dinero. Pero además, las cuentas públicas se vieron muy perjudicadas por la fuerte inflación que castigó al grano y a las tierras debido a las ingentes cantidades de oro que llegaban de América. Similar a los problemas que puede provocar darle a la máquina del dinero en la actualidad.


Con ese panorama, Felipe II sólo pudo suspender los pagos y comenzar a reestructurar su deuda. El monarca acordó con algunos prestamistas devolver sólo los intereses y olvidar el principal, con otros alargó el plazo de devolución del préstamo. Condiciones que los banqueros tuvieron que aceptar si querían recuperar algo del dinero prestado y que terminó con los Fugger arruinados, ya que Felipe II llegó a suspender los asientos –bancarrota-hasta tres veces.


Esa dinámica de préstamos e impagos recorrió los siglos XVII y XVIII. En cinco ocasiones, a lo largo de los dos siglos, se suspendieron los asientos o se renegoció la deuda –reestructuración que algunos expertos no descartan que tenga que hacer Grecia, aunque en la actualidad el plan de estabilidad del euro ha ahuyentado esos fantasmas-. Las continuas bancarrotas de España habrían convertido su deuda en bono basura si Moody´s o Fitch la hubieran calificado.


Hizo falta que llegara un francés, Philippe de Bourbon para poner orden a las finanzas españolas. Tras la Guerra de Sucesión, reinó como Felipe V desde 1700 hasta 1746 y articuló un estado moderno con funcionarios. A la vez retomó el comercio con América y elaboró una Hacienda con impuestos para financiar el nuevo estado.


Fernando VI siguió la estela de su padre y hasta Carlos III no se ve una innovación: el Banco de San Carlos. Una entidad encargada de convertir los vales reales y de descontar los efectos al 4%, contratar los suministros militares y pagar la deuda exterior. En un principio se pretendió que el capital privado entrara en el banco, pero los inversores no vieron negocio. La entidad cargada de deudas sobrevivió hasta 1829 cuando fue absorbida por el Banco de San Fernando.


El siguiente problema con la deuda española vino a finales del siglo XVIII. La decisión de Carlos IV de ir a la guerra contra Francia por haber cortado la cabeza a Luis XVI y a María Antonieta supuso la ruina de las finanzas patrias. La emisión desmesurada de vales reales terminó por llevar a la suspensión de pago de los intereses.


Los problemas franceses terminaron en la Guerra de Independencia que supuso una merma considerable del arca pública. Un gasto que ya no veía venir oro desde el otro lado del Atlántico, ya que cada vez eran más los territorios de ultramar que proclamaban su independencia. Un déficit crónico al que tuvo que enfrentarse Fernando VII durante todo su reinado y que fue punto de partida del siglo más difícil para las finanzas españolas: el XIX.


El s.XIX y la falta de una revolución industrial


El siglo XIX dejó patente la falta de iniciativa empresarial que terminó por dejar yermas las arcas del Estado. En un país con continuos golpes de Estado, pronunciamientos militares y demás peleas (absolutistas contra liberales, isabelinos contra republicanos,…), se hacía necesaria una revolución industrial que no se produjo y que sufragó el Estado.


El ferrocarril dinamitó las finanzas españolas y obligó a Isabel II a hacer más atractiva la deuda subiendo su rentabilidad, ya que los banqueros desconfiaban de los españoles. Un déficit que terminó en convertirse en impagos a las empresas que habían construido el ferrocarril y a los bancos que lo habían financiado. Una situación que provocó una quiebra en cadena que terminó con casi la mitad de las entidades financieras que había en el país. Tal fue el descontento de la sociedad que la Primera República se recibió con júbilo.


La primera parte del siglo XX fue tranquila hasta la llegada de la Guerra Civil. Ésa fue la última vez, hasta el momento, que España entró en default. Una deuda que se quedaron sin cobrar los prestamistas del bando perdedor, el Gobierno Republicano, ya que el general Franco sí reconoció su deuda. Según estimaciones, el Generalísimo debía 14.000 millones de pesetas al terminar la Guerra Civil. Los programas de Posguerra y la tecnocratización de la Dictadura terminaron poco a poco con los déficits. La posterior apertura al turismo terminó por llevar el superávit y las divisas extranjeras a las cuentas de España .


Sólo Grecia y sus problemas con la deuda han hecho despertar los fantasmas de la quiebra en España. Temores que parecen alejarse tras el plan de defensa del euro y el recorte del gasto propuesto por el presidente de Gobierno, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero. Pero si alguien tiene algo que decir en esto de la deuda es España, el primer país en crear bonos y el primero en entrar en bancarrota.

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